Ross Voelker was born and raised in Madison, WI. He is now studying biological chemistry at Grinnell College in Grinnell, IA. His undergraduate research at Grinnell focuses on genetic regulation. In addition to biological chemistry, Ross enjoys history courses at Grinnell.
In 1863 Gregor Mendel finished his extensive study of pea plants. One hundred and fifty years later, his principles of inheritance are being used in ways Mendel never would have imagined.
Gregor Mendel was a Catholic monk who discovered patterns of trait inheritance in pea plants. Writing at the same time as Mendel, in 1859 Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution based on natural selection. By 1900 their ideas of inheritance and evolution were becoming accepted in the scientific and medical communities.[1] These scientific discoveries were big steps in understanding inheritance and development of certain traits, however the knowledge that Mendel and Darwin contributed to society quickly became misconstrued and used in ways no Catholic monk would endorse.
Around the turn of the 20th century, middle and upper class Americans believed that American culture was to be a “model for future civilization”.[2] Part of creating that model included utilizing new scientific ideas to better society. Thus, Mendel’s and Darwin’s work morphed into social Darwinist theory. The idea that some people were inherently less fit than others based on their genetics spread quickly through early 20th century America. As part of the middle and upper classes, most physicians believed in social Darwinism. Together with upper class lawmakers, physicians used their power as medical professionals to spread social Darwinism and kick off the eugenics movement.
Reformers that looked to solve the problems of modern society with social Darwinism first looked to stop the “unfit” from procreating. The question quickly became: what constitutes unfitness? “Unfit” Americans came to include the mentally ill, felons, immigrants, and other lower class Americans. Because these people were the “problems” of modern society, reformers sought to stop their problems from spreading to the next generation of Americans. This was done with marriage laws starting in 1905 and involuntary sterilization starting in 1907. Marriage laws required physicians to sign a “bill of clean health “before couples were allowed to marry, which often focused on problematic social traits.[3] Interracial marriage was also outlawed. Sterilization laws were enacted and men and women in mental wards, prisons, and other places across the country were sterilized. More that 60,000 mentally ill, felons, and idiots were sterilized between 1900 and 1970 in the United States.[4] These sterilizations were not made blindly. Sterilized individuals were mainly poor or non-white. Women were also sterilized more commonly than men. This blatant class, race, and gender discrimination quickly became synonymous with eugenics around the middle of the century.
Following WWII sterilizations and marriage laws declined (they did not disappear though because there are still examples of sterilizations in the 21st century), but the negative impacts of eugenics has not gone away. In 2003, the Human Genome Projectwas completed, giving scientists a map of all human genes. This information can be used in various ways, both beneficial and harmful.
First, genetic testing is a great resource for predictive and preventive medicine. Many couples seek genetic counseling today to understand more about the future health of their children. This can be helpful in preventing or treating disease. Gene therapy is another medical tool utilizing genetics. In this technique, doctors can therapeutically introduce normal genes to counteract mutated ones. These are all extremely useful applications of genetics but are also extremely expensive meaning that they are only available to a select class.
Many scholars warn of a second eugenics movement as findings from the human genome project become utilized in negative ways. The same tests that genetic counseling can use to identify patients for preventive medicine can also be manipulated by insurance companies and employers. With access to any genetic test results, Americans could be uninsured or even not hired because of their genetics. Congress has passed laws inhibiting access to these test results, however the laws are narrowly written and can be avoided by insurance companies and employers in some situations.
In recent years we have also seen the rise of “test tube babies”, a great (not to mention pricey) resource for parents unable to conceive on their own. This also parallels the positive impacts of eugenics like better baby contests of the early 20th century. However in the future will we be selecting for more than health? Picking certain traits is another reason scholars warn against a second eugenics movement.
Historians like Linda and Edward McCabe wonder if we are entering a “perfect storm” for more eugenic ideas.[5] Despite genetics showing 99.9% similarity between individuals, genetics has driven Americans apart since the 1900s. In the last century, it has been a tool for the middle and upper class to exclude those they see as a threat to society and may continue to be unless a change is made. It has hardly been used in a way that Mendel would have imagined 150 years ago.
